Wednesday, October 30, 2019
Summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 101
Summary - Essay Example The variables under investigation were the social capital and public engagement in public affairs, both of which are necessary in strengthening the responsiveness of civil societies and political institutions. These factors are necessary in maintaining healthy democracies in the society. The research method was a direct survey using online questionnaires; respondents were asked questions regarding the use of social networks to obtain news and the effects that the news obtained had on their knowledge and participation in political issues. To increase the response rate, a monetary incentive was used; participants were entered in a draw where they could win monetary prizes. The variables under investigation were social capital, offline political participation, civic participation, social demographic variables, use of media news, use of social networks for news and general social network use. In each variable, respondents were asked questions regarding their behaviors in using social net works and the effects that these had on the respondents. The research revealed that public use of news in social networks had a direct effect in increasing the social capital significantly. In other words, the use of social networks to keep up with news on issues affecting the community had a positive effect on the social capital. Moreover, the research revealed that the use of social network sites for news improved public participation in the society, which led to increased participation in political discussions, online and offline. As such, people who get informed through social sites tended to participate more in issues affecting the community, with such participation leading to new information seeking behavior. The researchers recommended the investigation of the effects of the socio-economic characteristics of the communities in which respondents live. This will lead to an understanding of the extent to which social economic differences may affect
Monday, October 28, 2019
Thermo Answers Essay Example for Free
Thermo Answers Essay Answer 8: I am not getting answer correct as the electron donor used by Alcohol                  Dehydrogenase is NADH and FAD is not evolved in it. Answer 9: FAD is used in neutralization of free radicals as it has higher oxidation                   potential than other and can easily reduced by free radicals. Answer 10: The answer will be when ∆H=0 as based on equations                     ∆G °=∆H- T∆S and ∆G °= -RT In Keq the value of Keq remains greater                     than 1 when value of ∆G ° remains negative and that is only possible in two                    Condition 1) when ∆H remains 0 or negative. And 2) ∆H remains negative                    along with ∆S becomes 0. Answer 11: Here rest of the answers is according to biologic standard for example H+  Concentration as all biological processes occurred at pH 7, the standard was taken as [H+] = 10-7 similarly biological processes conceder to be worked at atmospheric pressure 1atm. As per the standard convention concentration of each reactant was taken as unity or 1M. Since all three answer were part of the biological standard condition only answer d remains choice as the biological processes occurs at temperature 37 C (our body temperature) and not at 0 C. Answer 12:         Here among all four compound only glucose -6- phosphate will not give rise to any energy but converted to fructose 6 phosphate in glycolysis, While 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate converted to 3-phospho glycerate and give rise to 2ATP, similarly phosphoenol pyruvate converted to pyruvate and gives 2ATP (both in process of glycolysis). Phosphocreatine act as energy storage in skeletal muscles where there is fluctuation in energy requirement, here in high energy requirement phosphocreatine converted to creatine by converting ADP to ATP. Answer 13: here answer is e, because if you see the reactions for the formation of Glucose-6 –phosphate 1 ATP has to be hydrolyzed in two step 1) first ATP gets converted to AMP and PPi by releasing energy equivalent to 45.6 kCal and as this reaction give rise to energy (liberation of energy) the value is indicated as negative (-45.6). In second step PPi again get hydrolyzed to Pi with energy release equivalent to 19.6 (i.e -19.6).      Now glucose converted to Glucose-6- phosphate by utilizing energy released from above mention reaction and it requires 13.8 Kcal, here the reaction requires energy and that’s why value is positive (i.e 13.8). In conclusion the energy balance sheet for formation of glucose-6-phosphate from Glucose will be -45.6-19.6+13.8 = -51.6 (favorable forward reaction as ∆G ° is negative) Answer 14: here the answer is e, The free energy of ATP hydrolysis is depend on 4 parameters 1) ratio of ATP/ADP (higher the ration lesser the hydrolysis) 2) pi concentration as being end product accumulation of it leads to more hydrolysis 3) H+ being slightly Acidic hydrolysis of ATP is depend o n pH (H+), and 4) concentration of Mg which act as cofactor for enzyme adenylate kinase which plays important role in ATP synthesis as well as ATP hydrolysis. Answer 15: As the phosphate group transfer from ATP to other Nucleotide is catalyzed by enzyme Nucleoside diphosphate kinase, and this is a reversible reaction the dynamics of reaction almost remains in steady state. For example in case of higher concentration of ATP the reaction goes in forward direction by generating NTP and ADP, But once ATP crises arises ADP converted back to ATP by the action of adenylate kinase. In conclusion the ratio of two nucleotide ATP and ADP+ NTP remains constant and hence Keq remains around 1. Answer 22: here the total out put or free energy is calculated based redox potential of electron except – electron donor and hence for answer d it will be highest  ie     ∆E °Ã¢â‚¬â„¢= -0.219- (.320) = 0.529 V Answer 23: In all these above mention reactions conversion of PEP to pyruvate have highest free energy changes of -61.9 compared to other reactions for example ATP hydrolysis gives rise to -30.5, and 45.6 similarly glucose 6 phosphate gives -13.8 Kj/mol. This high energy is due to direct transfer of Phosphate group from PEP to ADP.
Saturday, October 26, 2019
Essay on Resolution of Conflict in The Tempest -- Tempest essays
Resolution of Conflict in The Tempest     The Tempest, like any text, is a product of its context. It is constructed in relation to moral or ethical concerns of 17th century European Jacobean society. The resolution of conflict appears 'natural' or an inevitable consequence if regarded in relation to the concerns of its context. The resolution of conflict in this play incorporates Prospero being returned to his 'rightful' or natural position as Duke of Milan, his daughter Miranda getting married to Ferdinand, and the party returning to Milan leaving the island to the 'monster', Caliban. The resolution is a consequence of the concerns of the time, including the idea of the divine right of kings, courtly love, and colonisation.  Conflict between the two brothers, Prospero and Antonio, for the powerful position of Duke is resolved when Prospero is crowned; this is presented as 'natural' through the idea of the 'divine right of kings'. In Jacobean society, the religious belief was that the King (James I at the time of this play) was divinely willed to have this position, and that there was a connection between God and the King. Shakespeare mimics this idea by often relating Prospero to God throughout The Tempest, with stage directions such as 'Prospero on top, invisible' which positions him 'close to God' and by his power to manipulate and control the lives of others:  'mine enemies are a... ... conflict.  The resolution of conflict in The Tempest is thus naturalised and constructed as an inevitable consequence through the use of moral and ethical concerns in the play, including the 'divine right of kings', the 'great chain of being', courtly love, colonising discourse and expanding territory. The Tempest thus incorporates concerns of the Jacobean 17th century context, used to naturalise the resolution.  Bibliography  Shakespeare, W. The Tempest. Ed. Sutherland, J.R. (1990)  "Tempest & Court Masques" By H. C. Sherwood  Meller, A., Moon, G.T. Literary Shakespeare (1993) Sydney: Canon Publications  Lecture on "The Tempest" (1988) C. Holmes Â
Thursday, October 24, 2019
Motivationed and Social Adjustment
41 B. Ed. ELECTIVE COURSE IV GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING OBJECTIVES: At the end of the course, the student- teachers will be able to To recall the principles underlying guidance To recognize the need of guidance and counselling in schools To describe the different services in the school guidance programme To acquire the skills necessary to administer and interpret standardized tools To know the qualities required for a good counsellor UNIT-I Guidance Guidance- Meaning, Definitions, Aims, Nature, Principles and Needs.TypesEducational, Vocational, Personal, Social- Relationship between guidance and Counselling – Benefits- Limitations UNIT-II Counselling Counselling– Meaning, Definitions, Elements-Characteristics – Objectives – Need – Types: Directive Counselling, Non-Directive Counselling, Eclectic Counselling – Meaning, Characteristics, Steps, Advantages, Limitations – Difference between Counselling and Guidance. UNIT-III Guidance Movement in India History of guidance movement in India – Problems of guidance movement in India – Ways to improve guidance movement in India.UNIT-IV Qualities of a Counsellor Counsellor – Qualities – Functions- Professional Ethics- Difference between Counsellor and Teacher. UNIT-V Group Guidance and Group Counselling Group guidance – Meaning, Definition, Objectives, Problems, Significance – Techniques, Uses. Group counselling – Meaning, Requirements – Uses. 42 UNIT – VI Theories of Vocational Choice Theories of Vocational Choice – Ginzberg, Super, Holland, Havighurst, Structural theory UNIT –VII Non –Testing Devices in Guidance Non-testing devices in guidance: Observation – Cumulative record, Anecdotal record, Case study, Autobiography, Rating Scale, Sociometry etc.UNIT-VIII Testing Devices in Guidance Testing devices in guidance-Meaning, Definition, Measurement, Uses of psychological tests: Intellig ence tests – Aptitude tests- Personality InventoriesAttitude scales – Achievement tests – Creativity tests -Mental health – frustrationconflict. UNIT- IX Guidance Services in Schools Guidance services at different school levels–Meaning, Significance, Types – Organisation of Guidance services in schools – Role of guidance personnel – Career and Occupational Information – sources, gathering, filing, dissemination- Career Corner- Career Conference.UNIT X Guidance for Exceptional Children Guidance for Exceptional Children- Meaning and Types. Guidance for gifted, backward, mentally retarded, orthopaedically handicapped, visually impaired, deaf and dumb, juvenile delinquents. SUGGESTED REFERENCE BOOKS: Chauhan, S. S. (2008). Principles and techniques of guidance. UP: Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd. Sharma, R. N. (2008). Vocational guidance & counseling. Delhi: Surjeet Publications. Jones, A. J. (2008). Principles of guidance. (5 ed). Delhi: Surjeet Publications. Crow, L. D. , & Crow, A. (2008). An introduction to guidance. Delhi: Surjeet Publications. 43 : ! †# :Sharma, R. A. (2008). Career information in career guidance. Meerut: R. Lall Books Depot. Meenakshisundaram, A. (2006). Experimental psychology. Dindigul: Kavyamala Publishers. Meenakshisundaram, A. (2005). Guidance and counseling. Dindigul: Kavyamala Publishers. Qureshi, H. (2004). Educational guidance. New Delhi: Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd. Bhatnagar, R. P. , & Seema, R. (2003). Guidance and counselling in education and psychology. Meerut: R. Lal Book Depot. Vashist S. R. (Ed. ). (2002). Principles of guidance. New Delhi: Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd. Sharma, R. N. (1999). Guidance and counseling. Delhi: Surjeet Publishers.Sodhi, T. S. , & Suri, S. P. (1997). Publication. Aggarwal, J. C. (1991). Educational, vocational guidance and counseling. New Delhi: Doabai House. Sharma, N. R. (1989). Educational and vocational guidance. Agra: Vinod Pustak Mandir. Kochhar, S. K. (1984). Guidance and counseling in colleges and universities. New Delhi: Sterling Publishing Pvt. Ltd. Indu, D. (1983). The basic essentials of counseling. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private Ltd. Madhusudan, M. (1983). Educational and vocational guidance. Sambalpur: Saha Publishers & Distributors. Anne, A. (1982). Psychological testing. New York: McMillan Company.Chauhan, S. S. (1982). Principles and techniques of guidance. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. Rao, N. S. (1981). Counseling psychology. New Delhi: Tata Mc Graw Hill Publishing Co. Kochhar, S. K. (1979). Guidance in indian education. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private Ltd. Guidance and counseling. Patiala: Bawa 44 Gaur, J. S. , & Saraswat, R. K. (1978). Occupational literature: An annotated bibliography. New Delhi: NCERT. James, C. H. (1978). Counselling process and procedures. New York: McMillan Co. Pasricha, P. (1976). Guidance and counselling in indian education. New Delh i: NCERT. Cirtes. (1974).Handbook on vocational guidance. New Delhi: Ministry of Labour and Rehabilitation,Govt. of India. Tolbert, E. L. (1974). Counselling for career development. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Patterson, C. H. (1973). Theories of counselling and psycho-therapy. New York: Harper and Row. Sinha, S. N. (1973). Dynamics of vocational behaviour. Jaipur: Asia Publishing House. Nanda, S. K. , & Sagar, S. (1972). Fundamentals of guidance. Chandigarh: N. B. S. Educational Publishers. Barclay, J. R. (1971). Foundations of counselling strategies. London: John Wiley and Sons Inc. Brewer, J. M. (1971). Education as guidance. New York: McGraw Hill.
Wednesday, October 23, 2019
The Masque of the Red Death
â€Å"The Masque of the Red Death†Literary Analysis: A Look at Imagery We continue our literary analysis of â€Å"The Masque of the Red Death†by Edgar Allan Poe with a look at the graphic imagery in the short story. players †¢ slide 1 of 4 Imagery is the use of figurative or descriptive language to create a vivid mental picture. It involves at least one of the five senses–sight, sound, touch, feel, taste. Imagery in â€Å"The Masque of the Red Death†is ghastly. †¢ slide 2 of 4 Example of Imagery – â€Å"There were sharp pains, and sudden dizziness, and then profuse bleeding at the pores, with dissolution.The scarlet stains upon the body and especially upon the face of the victim, were the pest ban which shut him out from the sympathy of his fellow men. †(145). Senses – Sight, Touch Analysis – Poe establishes the mood and setting of the story with the vivid description of the Red Death. The passage establishes the h orror of the disease and explains why the guests would react to the blood stained intruder at the end of the story. †¢ slide 3 of 4 Imagery in the 7th RoomExample of Imagery – â€Å"The seventh apartment was closely shrouded in black velvet tapestries that hung all over the ceiling and down the walls, falling in heavy folds upon the carpet of the same material and hue†(146). Senses – Sight, Touch Analysis: The oppressiveness of the 7th room contrasts the gaiety of the previous six. The darkness of the room and the heaviness and darkness of the curtain symbolizes death. No wonder none of the guests wish to come near it. Note the pun on â€Å"shroud. †Example of Imagery – â€Å"The panes here were scarlet–a deep color†¦.In the corridors that followed the suite, there stood, opposite to each window, a heavy tripod, bearing a brazier of fire, that projected its rays through the tinted glass and so glaringly illuminated the room. And thus were produced a multitude of gaudy and fantastic appearances†¦ The effect of the firelight that streamed upon the dark hangings through the blood tinted panes was ghastly in the extreme†(146-7) Senses – Sight Analysis – So much for peaceful death. The images created by the brazier of fire and blood tinted glass give the room of death a ghastly appearance.The gaudy and fantastic appearances, the blood tinted panes, and the fire create an image of hell, hinting that perhaps the guests and the Prince fear not just the Red Death, but their eternal fate. †¢ slide 4 of 4 More Examples Example of Imagery – â€Å"Its pendulum swung to and fro with a heavy monotonous clang; there came from the brazen lungs of the clock a sound which was clear and loud and deep and exceedingly musical†(147). Senses – Sound Analysis – No wonder the musicians stopped when this clock struck.Poe uses personification–brazen lungs–to em phasize the deepness of the â€Å"heavy monotonous clang,†a clang that serves as an hourly reminder to the guests that death is approaching. Example of Imagery – â€Å"The figure was tall and gaunt, and shrouded from head to foot in the habilments of the grave†¦ His vesture was dabed in blood and his broad brow, with all the features of the face was besprinkled with the scarlet horror. †(149). Senses – Sight Death – The personified Red Death strikes fear and anger in the hearts of Prospero and his guests.Once the Red Death appears, it never leaves. Symbolism in â€Å"The Masque of the Red Death†Why are there seven rooms in â€Å"The Masque of the Red Death†? Learn all that and more with this guide to symbolism. latest †¢ slide 1 of 6 Edgar Allan Poe's â€Å"The Masque of the Red Death†should be studied at many levels: (1) the literal level – the literal level is a study of the events that actually take plac e in the story; (2) an allegorical level – an allegory is a story in which the objects, characters, and events are symbolic of something grander in scale.In order to understand the story allegorically, one needs a firm understanding of symbols in â€Å"The Masque of the Red Death. ††¢ slide 2 of 6 Symbols ; Analysis The Red Death symbolizes the inevitability of death. Although there is no specific disease with the exact symptoms described in the story, critics believe the disease's description has elements of tuberculosis, a disease which killed many of those close to Poe. It also brings forth memories of the Black Death which depopulated much of Europe during the Middle Ages.The Castle represents man's efforts to prevent death. Regardless of wealth, social position, or popularity, death arrives as an uninvited guest. Prince Prospero symbolizes the end of feudalism. Prospero's inviting only wealthy knights and ladies to his castle at the expense of peasants and c ommoners represents the socioeconomic divide between landowners and peasants that existed during the feudalistic period. It is not coincidental that the Black Death, which reduced the number of workers, led to a demand for labor and played an important role in ending feudalism in Europe.The Ebony Clock is a constant reminder of death and symbolizes the inevitability of it. The revelers could neither stop its pendulum from swinging nor could they prevent its ominous tones from dampering their enthusiasm. †¢ The Seven Rooms represent the stages of life. More on this later. The Masqueraders symbolize all humans and gives creedence to the interpretation that the seven rooms represent the seven ages of man (covered further in the next section). †¢ slide 3 of 6 Color Symbolism Colors play an important role in this story:Red – The most obvious color symbolism in â€Å"The Masque of the Red Death†is in its title. Red symbolizes death and blood. The gruesome descript ion of the Red Death gives the color a ghastly connotation, especially in light of the red window panes contained in the death room at the far western end of the imperial suite. Black/Ebony – The seventh room was â€Å"closely shrouded in black velvet tapestries that hung all over the ceiling and down the walls, falling in heavy folds upon a carpet of the same material and hue†(146).This seventh room contains â€Å"no light of any kind†and represents the darkness of death. In this room stands the ebony clock. Upon hearing its chimes the guests were reminded of death: â€Å"the giddiest grew pale, and the more aged and sedate passed their hands over their brows as if in confused reverie or meditation†(147). Blue/Purple/Green/Orange/White/Violet – These are the colors of the first six rooms in the imperial suite. I will address them together insomuch that they represent a prism and therefore reflect a progression, lending creedence to the interpre tation that the story is an allegory for life.This interpretation, however, is complicated by the fact that the color of Prospero's room do not occur in the same sequence as they do in a prism, possibly reflective of Prospero's twisted sense of fairness or an attempt by the author to associate particular colors with a specific period in life. †¢ Others interpret the 7 rooms in â€Å"The Masque of the Red Death†as a symbol of Prospero's indulgence in the seven deadly sins: 1. Pride/Vanity – Pride is the excessive belief in one's own abilities, similar to vanity, which is setting one's heart on things of little value.Prospero's belief that he is more powerful than death is a vivid demonstration of pride. 2. Envy – It is unclear who the Prince might envy, but he sure is trying hard to impress someone. 3. Gluttony – Gluttony is the act of consuming more than one is required. Instead of using his means to protect more people, something he is obligated to do as prince, he lavishes his guests with â€Å"ample provisions†and â€Å"the appliances of pleasure. †4. Lust – Lust is an excessive craving for the pleasures of the body, usually associated with sex. The era in which Poe wrote prohibited he explicit or implicit description of sex, but what do you think was going on at an anything goes party? 5. Anger – The Prince becomes angry with the uninvited guest and attacks it. 6. Greed – Although it is apparent Prince Prospero shares his wealth with a thousand guests, he helps those who need it least and withholds his substance from those in need. 7. Sloth – Sloth is the absence of work. The prince seems like a hard worker; his work, however, is on the physical realm not the spiritual realm. †¢ slide 6 of 6 What do you think they mean? If you have an alternate interpretation, let me know in the comments.
Tuesday, October 22, 2019
Macbeth Analysis Essays - Characters In Macbeth, Fiction
Macbeth Analysis Essays - Characters In Macbeth, Fiction Macbeth Analysis To Know My Deed, Twere Best Not Know Myself How was it possible for such an admirable and noble man, so established in society, to fall so greatly into a dilemma, full of murderous plots and deceit? In William Shakespeares Macbeth, the idea of one character becoming both victim and villain is introduced. Macbeth falls prey to others deception, and is supplanted with greed and hate when he is tricked by three witches. When told that he is going to be King of Scotland, Macbeth does whatever he can to ensure his prophecy. In Macbeths quest for power, he gains a flaw that ends in a deteriorated relationship with Lady Macbeth, and his eventual defeat. All hail, Macbeth, that shalt be King hereafter! (I.iii.50) The three witches, with their prophetic greeting (I.iii.78) gear Macbeths drive for power. They embody the supernatural element of this tragedy. With their imperfect predictions, they play on Macbeths security and nourish the seed of his tragic flaw, which flourishes in their manipulative prophecies and drives him into becoming the King of Scotland. But the Scottish aristocracy comprises of King Duncan, his two princes Malcolm and Donalbain, and various other thanes and nobles, including Macbeths friend, Banquo. His desire for position on the throne overrides his respect for the King and his own dignity, leading Macbeth to slaughter him, and murder all those who serve as obstacles in his treacherous pursuit of the throne. Yet I do fear thy nature. It is too full o the milk of human kindness to catch the nearest way. Thou wouldst be great; art not without ambition, but without the illness should attend it. (I.v.16-20) In the beginning, Lady Macbeth has a kind of power over Macbeth that she can only achieve through his devotion to her. She adds to his false sense of security, and Macbeth confides in her and lets her persuade him. As the murderous plots drag on, he loses his will to speak in confidence to her. As with Banquo, Macbeth no longer looks to him as an ally, but rather a hurdle that he must defeat in order to fulfill the divination that the witches have cast. Banquo is near enough to draw blood, and like a menacing swordsman, his mere presence threatens Macbeths existence (III.i.115-117). Macbeth is not sufficiently cultivated in good or evil to gather poise for all occasions; thus he experiences difficulty in sleeping, he uses rhetoric inadequately in the presence of others when disturbed, and even resorts to improbability. That tears shall drown the wind. I have no spur to prick the sides of my intent, but only vaulting ambition, which oerleaps itself and falls on the other (I.vii.25-28) Macbeth has a conscience that plagues him throughout the story, prohibiting him from forgetting all he knows that is right. But again, the words of his wife, Lady Macbeth, supplied with the warped foresights of the three witches, impels him to stay devoted to his utterly selfish ends. Macbeths fall from grace into sheer misery is truly tragic in its nature. Even his soliloquies, notable for magniloquence and marked by voluptuous word-painting, show more the stages of his corruption than its causes - the need for action to cover his lack of poise in awaiting developments and the need to stifle the moral imagination that enables him to foresee the consequences of his actions. Macbeth was simply a weak soul that had been unfairly hoaxed.
Monday, October 21, 2019
Contrast the priorities of the northern and southern Renaissance Essays
Contrast the priorities of the northern and southern Renaissance Essays Contrast the priorities of the northern and southern Renaissance Paper Contrast the priorities of the northern and southern Renaissance Paper The renaissance was a period in European cultural history that began in Italy around 1400 and lasted there until the end of the 16th century. It flourished later elsewhere in Europe and lasted until the 17th century. The Renaissance brought an all around change in the way people thought and in their beliefs. People began to discover the world and discover themselves as individuals. The world was beginning to change, technology progressed, and art and music became liberated. The Renaissance could also be known as a Revival of Learning. People began to question the basic facts of life of which they were forced to accept. Acceptance was replaced with questioning, experimenting, understanding and learning. Central to the renaissance was humanism, the belief in the active, rather then the contemplative life and a faith in the republican ideal. However the greatest expression of the renaissance was in arts and learning. For example Alberti, in his writings on painting, created both methods of painting using perspective to create an illusion of a third dimension and a classically inspired non-religious subject matter. Even in his architecture, he created a system of simple proportion that was to be followed for hundreds of years. The Renaissance was heralded by the work of the early 14th-century painter Giotto in Florence, and in the early 15th century a handful of outstanding innovative artists emerged there: Masaccio, in painting, Donatello, in sculpture, and Brunelleschi, in architecture. At the same time the humanist philosopher, artist, and writer Leon Baptista Alberti recorded many of the new ideas in his treatises on painting, sculpture, and architecture. These ideas soon became widespread in Italy, and many new centres of patronage formed. In the 16th century Rome superseded Florence as the chief centre of activity and innovation, and became the capital of the High Renaissance. The cultures throughout Europe were hugely diverse and have remained so to this present day. So therefore it is highly likely that the renaissance took on different meanings and interpretations throughout Europe. In northern Europe the Renaissance spirit is apparent in the painting of the van Eyck brothers in the early 15th century. The Italian artists Cellini, Rosso Fiorentino, and Primaticcio took the Renaissance to France through their work at Fontainebleau. The ideas, concepts, understandings and priorities of the renaissance could not have been the same throughout a continent that differed in social, cultural, political and religious issues. So there is no query that the artistic renaissance originated in Italy. And this change in Art had a huge impact on art in the north. Artists in the rest of Europe were impressed by the new ideas on art from Italy. Italy therefore attracted many of the great artists from elsewhere in Europe. When we look at the works of art during the renaissance in both Italy and the north, we can see that they both set out to achieve the same goals more or less, such as, an interest in individual consciousness and a desire to make images of the visible world, often portraying a religious scene, more believable and accessible. 1 However there are many striking differences in methods and techniques due to a manifold of reasons. Because the patrons in the north tended to be of the bourgeois class, rather that religious or noble, the artists that they sponsored, painted for civic or even domestic display. Communities commissioned works for their chapels and town halls. This could be the reason why the works of art from the northern renaissance were often on a smaller scale than those from the Italian renaissance. There was a frequent use of grisaille to portray a more sculptured look on the triptych covers. The climate had a great impact on the methods of painting in the north and south. Frescoing was more common in Italy as the warm climate enabled the paintings to dry quicker, whereas with the damp, colder climate of the north, frescoes took longer to dry. The artists wanted to meet public demand and thus produced smaller, mobile works of art. It is also clear that the northern artists and patrons were concerned about their social status. They wanted to show their current and even potential social positions. The Italian artists seemed somewhat oblivious to their step on the social ladder. Symbolism seemed central to the northern artistic renaissance. One example of this is Holbeins The Ambassador, which features a number of valuable objects, which attempt to display the status of the subjects and their interests in intellectual matters. The northern artists crowded their paintings with many minor details in the background and on the subject matter with the aim of displaying their wealth. The Italian artists did not feel the need to include these small objects of everyday use when depicting biblical scenes or in their portraits of their wealthy sponsors. It is therefore clear that both the northern artists and the Italian artists aimed to achieve a sense of realism and credibility in their work, but they both contained many unique features, which differed greatly from each other. One of the key features of the renaissance is Humanism. This is associated more with the northern renaissance. Humanists believed that God had given each person free will and that it was up to everybody to use their talents to the full and to achieve their true potential. When we think of humanism, we think of the famous Erasmus, Petrarch or Moore. These humanists played an important role in the renaissance. Erasmus had a thorough training in the classic authors as well as in the languages and grammar, which he mobilised in the cause of Christian scholarship. He was probably the greatest classical scholar of his age and he used his knowledge of Greek and Latin sources to demonstrate the profound effect of ancient culture on Christianity. He believed that the classics could inspire good taste, stimulate sound and clear thinking and could cultivate clear, accurate and precise verbal and written expression. He also believed that their study along with the Bible would promote greater religious devotion and goodness. This piety through literature was the basis of Erasmuss educational philosophy and his religious reformism. Erasmus attacked clerical abuse through his literature, he wrote I could see that the common body of Christians were corrupt not only in its affections, but in its ideas. Like Erasmus, Petrarch restored the Latin classics and he initiated the recovery and revision of ancient texts that followed with the early 15th century. Petrarch would be considered a northern humanist because although he was born in Florence, he was raised in Provence. However although Humanism is associated more with the northern renaissance, the humanists of Italy had similar beliefs Alberti of Florence believed that each person was responsible for their own destiny. The longing to come to terms with the way in which the world worked was an essential attribute in the learning of the renaissance, and it is certainly no big shock that important scientific developments occurred during the 15th and 16th centuries. Although Columbus was born in Italy, he would be associated with the northern renaissance, as his culture was purely Spanish. All his letters, even those addressed to Italians, were in Spanish. His studies of the Pole Star led him to the conclusion that the Earth was pear-shaped. Another man from the northern renaissance was Copernicus from Poland. Copernicus was a famous astronomer who by careful observation, with the naked eye, of the phases of an eclipse, he had discovered the dual motion of the planet on their own axes and around the sun. By 1512, he had this system worked out to the smallest detail. However, he hesitated to publish his work as he said, I can well believe that when what I have written becomes known, there will be an uproar. Copernicus changed the way the world thought forever as he argued that the earth was the centre of the universe and not the earth, with the planets and their satellites revolving around it. The amazing thing about he discoveries of Copernicus is that they were the products of pure reason applied to facts known to the ancients and carefully noted by ptolemy2 So it was clear that the northern universities led the way in the new astronomy. It is doubtful whether the cause of scientific development stems greatly from the Italian renaissance. Indeed, it was the thesis of Toffanin that the rise of humanism stifled the sciences in favour of literature. The Germans invented printing and certainly Copernicus was born in Poland, and Francis Bacon precedes Galileo, who only gives a scientific achievement to Italy well into the 17th century, outside the chronological limits usually set to the renaissance. Also an independent spirit of enquiry arose in European biology and medicine. Human dissections were routinely performed from the 14th century and anatomy emerged as a mature science from the eager activity of the Belgian, Andreas Vesalius, whose De humani corporis fabrica is one of the masterpieces of the Scientific Revolution. His achievement was to examine the body itself rather than relying simply on Galen; the illustrations in his work are simultaneously objects of scientific originality and of artistic beauty. The rediscovery of the beauty of the human body by Renaissance artists encouraged the study of anatomy by geniuses such as Leonardo da Vinci. Shortly afterwards, an Englishman, William Harvey discovered the circulation of the blood and established physiology on a scientific footing. His little book De Motu Cordis (1628; On the Motion of the Heart) was the first great work on experimental physiology since the time of Galen. The eccentric wandering Swiss doctor Paracelsus had also deliberately set aside the teachings of Galen and other Ancients in favour of a fresh approach to Nature and medicine and to the search for new remedies for disease. These discoveries were all made by men from the northern renaissance, which may indicate that the renaissance in the north was more concerned with discovery and solving the unknown rather than just art. The Catholic Church was extremely affected by the renaissance too. The renaissance way of think brought about the reformation and there is no doubt that the church could see it coming. Humanists such as Erasmus, Petrarch and Moore questioned the church. They let their beliefs be known that each man controlled his own destiny, and therefore there was no divine rights given to anyone from God. The renaissance was an age of reformers. Above many reforms in art, literature, science and technology was the renewal of the relationship between humanity and God by thoroughly reforming the church. Through reason and education, these humanists aspired to transform not only the church but also society. So in fact it was the northern humanists who paved the way for the reformation. Therefore the Catholic Church faced many threats to its authority during the renaissance period. In both north and south, artists strove to perfect realism in their art and began to analyse nature and the human body. The church had originally exerted control over the masses by keeping them in the dark so to speak, by not encouraging them to investigate, explore or question what they were told. It was not a priority or aim of the northern and southern renaissance to contradict the teachings of the church, but by systematically reasoning and analysing the basic facts of life, they gradually took away the power of the church upon the people. The style of renaissance architecture, which began in 15th-century Italy, was based on the revival of classical, especially Roman, architecture developed by Brunelleschi. It is characterised by a concern with balance, clarity, and proportion, and by the external use of columns and fluted pilasters. Many Roman buildings were still extant in Renaissance Italy and artists and scholars studied their proportions and copied their decorative motifs. The architectural books of the Roman Vitruvius, 1st century AD were made popular by Leon Battista Alberti in his influential treatise De re aedificatoria/On Architecture 1486 but the first major work of the age was the successful construction by Brunelleschi of a dome 1420-34 on Florence Cathedral. Alberti himself designed a new fai ade for Santa Maria Novella, completed 1470, in Florence, and redesigned a church in Rimini subsequently called the Tempio Malatestiano, c. 1450. Bramante came closest to the recreation of classical ideas with works such as the Tempietto of San Pietro in Montorio, Rome, c. 1510 and the new basilica of St Peters in Rome, begun 1506. Other Renaissance architects in Italy include Michelangelo, Giulio Romano, Palladio, Vignola, Sangallo, and Raphael. As Renaissance architecture spread throughout the rest of Europe it often acquired a distinctively national character through the influence of indigenous styles. Renaissance architecture in England is exemplified by the Queens House at Greenwich, London, built by Inigo Jones 1637 and in France by the Louvre Palace built for Frani ois I 1546. In Spain, a fusion of Renaissance and Gothic architectural forms led to the flamboyant style called Plateresque, Manuellian in Portugal, typified by the fai de of the university at Salamanca, completed 1529. Overall, we can see that although the renaissance throughout Europe, meant a change in the way people thought, its priorities varied from country to country. The Italian renaissance prioritised their art producing many famous works of art such as de Vincis Mona Lisa, Michaelangelos David and hundreds more, nevertheless, humanism and discovery were not excluded. However the northern renaissance prioritised Humanism and discovery, although playing an important role in renaissance art.
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